Fig 2: Effect of Nrf2 on the mitochondrial function and mitophagy after ICH. (a) Effect of Nrf2 on the mtROS in each group. (b) Effect of Nrf2 on the mitochondrial ultrastructure in each group. (c) Representative immunoblots of Nrf2, LC3 II/I, OPTN, Beclin1, Parkin, and PINK1 proteins from each group. The bar graph of densitometric analysis shows the protein levels of LC3 II/I (d), Nrf2, OPTN, Beclin1, Parkin, and PINK1 (e) in each group. The values are presented as mean ± SD; n = 3‐6; ∗p < 0.05 and ∗∗p < 0.01 vs. Nrf2 WT sham group; #p < 0.05 and ##p < 0.01 vs. Nrf2 WT ICH group; &&p < 0.01 vs. Nrf2 WT sham group.

Fig 3: Schematic model of NLRX1-mediated insufficient mitophagy in morphine-treated microglial cells. Morphine enhanced the ability of NLRX1-mediated mitophagy in a LC3-dependent manner, while impairing lysosomal function including generation, mitophagosome–lysosome fusion and acidification, thus leading to disturbance of mitochondrial–lysosomal homeostasis. NLRX1-mediated incomplete mitophagy in morphine-treated microglial cells ultimately contributed to microglial immunosuppressive condition

Fig 4: Effects of daily lactate administration under CR on catabolic proteins in skeletal muscle. (A) Band images, (B) MAFbx, (C) MuRF1, (D) LC3-Ⅱ/Ⅰ, (E) p62 and (F) ubiquitinated proteins. Values represent mean ± SE (n = 7–8 per group). *P < 0.05 vs. Control by one-way ANOVA.

Fig 5: Depletion of Numb inhibits renal autophagy in AKI model induced by Cisplatin. (a) The protein expression of Numb, Beclin-1, and LC3-II in the kidney from mice 3 days after Cisplatin injection was analyzed by Western blotting. (b) Relative expression of Numb, Beclin-1, and LC3-II to GAPDH was represented in graphic. (c) The level of creatinine in serum. (d) Serum BUN was assayed. (e) HE staining of kidney. (f) Histology score was analyzed. Data are presented as means±SD, n =5. ∗P < 0.05 versus Control. #P < 0.05 versus scramble siRNA-injected mice treated with Cisplatin. (g) The protein expression of Numb, Beclin-1, and LC3-II in the kidney of mice in each group. (h) Relative expression of Numb, Beclin-1, and LC3-II to GAPDH was represented in graphic. Data are shown with means±SD, n =5. ∗P < 0.05 versus Control group. #P < 0.05 versus scramble siRNA-injected mice with Cisplatin treatment.